**Dov Yarden Hebrew and Arabic linguistic Seminar at the École Normale** Workshops on Semitic Syntax and Morphology # Irregular plurals: morphophonemic changes in MSA ***Abstract:** Morphophonemic changes are the morphological and phonological changes that take place in a single word due to plural, case, tense, or gender. The current paper elaborates on this interconnection from an Arabic perspective, by considering the issue of morphophonemic changes in Standard Arab as a process that involves significant changes in the various irregular patterns of plural. It draws on the structure of Arabic mainly phonology and morphology, and therefore it focuses on irregular plural which has many forms. First, the paper introduces plural in Arabic, by elaborating on its various forms. Then, the paper classifies irregular plural. Finally, the paper suggests a few conclusions and recommendations. **Key words:** Standard Arabic, Morphology, Phonology, Plural, Irregular plural, Broken plural, Morphophonemic changes, Morphophonology.* <span dir="rtl">**ﻣﻠﺨﺺ:** ان ھﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ھﻮ ﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ ﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻂ اﻟﻀﻮء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻐﯿﺮات ﺻﺮﻓﯿﺔ وﺻﻮﺗﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﺪث ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮد اﻟﻰ اﻟﺠﻤﻊ وﻣﻦ زﻣﻦ اﻟﻰ آﺧﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼ ﺗﻮﺿﯿﺢ اﻟﺤﺎﻻت اﻟﺼﻮﺗﯿﺔ واﻟﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﺎﺣﺐ ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬا اﻟﺘﻐﯿﯿﺮ، وﯾﺮﻛﺰ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻤﻊ اﻟﺘﻜﺴﯿﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻟﻜﻮﻧﮫ أوﺿﺢ ﻣﺜﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺪوث ﻋﺪة ﻣﺘﻐﯿﺮات ﺻﻮﺗﯿﺔ وﺻﺮﻓﯿﺔ ﺻﻮﺗﯿﺔ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺤﻮﯾﻠﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮد اﻟﻰ اﻟﺠﻤﻊ، ورﻏﻢ ﻛﺜﺮة اﻟﺒﺤﻮث اﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺘﺒﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻤﻊ اﻟﺘﻜﺴﯿﺮ ﺳﻮاء ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ أو اﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻔﺎ اﻷﻧﻜﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ اﻻ ان أھﻤﯿﺔ ھﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺗﺒﺮز ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﺎوﻟﮫ ھﺬا اﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر ﺻﻮﺗﻲ وﺻﺮﻓﻲ وﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﺮﺗﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮات ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ وﺻﺮﻓﯿﺔ ودﻻﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ اﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻰ ﺳﺮد ﺟﻤﯿﻊ أﻧﻮاع اﻟﺠﻤﻊ اﻟﻐﯿﺮ اﻟﺴﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺪاول ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ. ﯾﺘﻨﺎول اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺪاﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﻤﻊ وﻟﻠﺘﻐﯿﺮات اﻟﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ واﻟﺼﻮﺗﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺿﻮء دراﺳﺎت ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺛﻢ ﯾﺤﻠﻞ ﻛﻞ ﻧﻮع ﻣﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺼﯿﻞ وﯾﺨﺘﺘﻢ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺑﻌﺪة وﺗﻮﺻﯿﺎت واﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﺎت.</span> # Introduction and Definition Morphophonemic changes are the morphological and phonological changes, alterations, and variations that take place in a single word due to such processes as plural (pl.), case, tense, and gender. These changes feature an interconnection between phonology and morphology. Gussmann (1985) emphasized the interconnections between phonology and morphology by focusing on the significance of morphological alterations on the phonological irregularities. Matthews (1974:156) defined morphophonemic processes as transitional between morphology and phonology, considering transitional fields as often the hardest to delimit, adding that there is no simple way to determine what belongs to morphophonemics and what belongs to morphology or phonology proper. Morphophonemic changes are thus transitional between morphology and phonology. Morphophonemics is an intermediary level of analysis between phonology and morphology in which the phonological regularities in the framework of morphology, especially the systematic phonological variants of morphemes and the conditions of their occurrence, are described (e.g. the two phonetic variations of the past tense morpheme -ed in *stayed* \[ste:d\] vs *heaped* \[hi:pt\]). The concept of an abstract phonological level underlying the concrete expressive form was first developed by Trubetzkoy (1929) and (1931) and further developed by Chomsky and Halle (1968), where the transfer of an abstract morphophonological (deep) structure (deep structure) (=a systematic phonemic level) into the concrete phonetic realization of the surface structure is guaranteed. Jensen (1990:7) maintained that “Morphophonemics refers to the changes in the shape of morphemes in different environments. Some such changes occur in purely phonological environments, as in the regular pl. suffix in English. # Elaboration and Similar Studies Chomsky (1951) tackled morphophonemic changes and alterations in Hebrew by considering pl. and noun formation. He (ibid.) viewed these changes as regular processes that are representative of original forms. Chomsky’s account of Hebrew morphophonemics is one of the prominent classical accounts in the field of morphophonemics. Martin (1952) analyzed derivation and number in Japanese by investigating the morphophonemic changes in that language. He elaborated on the importance of phoneme and syllable as the sources of alteration. Martin (1952) held that morphemes in general are much more complicated than it is thought when it comes to asymmetry and complementation in consonant movement. McCarthy (1979:335) emphasized the importance of consonant slots in irregular plural being representative of the all the processes occurring in the word especially metathesis. He added that the roots of the singulars are changeable according to the lexical ambient of the word, and therefore sometimes even consonants are elided if they are quinquiliteral in roots, that is, having five consonants. Bybee and Brewer’s (1980) study accounted for morphonemic changes in some Romance dialects and languages that are spoken in Spain and France through an analysis of number and tense. They argued that there is a persistent change in Romance languages because of autonomy rules especially in some Spanish dialects. McCarthy (1983:300-301) raised the issue of consonant insertion in the Arabic broken pl. whereby *w-* is inserted in such pls. as *qanuun→qewaneen* ‘laws’. According to him, there is a context of transformation in certain pls. in trilateral nouns that require the insertion of *w-*. He added that such context is triggered by the fact that trilateral nouns undergo root change and thus rendered as quadriliteral in pl. Köpcke (1988) presented a different account of morphophonemic changes as he shed light on the role of native speakers in constructing the pl. of certain words, arguing that native speakers tend to formulate pls. that are analogus with certain words. Köpcke based his study on pre-defined rules or schemas that account for lexical as well as phonological basis. Oztaner’s (1996) study is a detailed account of the grammar of Turkish in terms of morphophonemic rules. Oztaner formulated a morphophonological framework of analysis whereby words are analyzable. # Irregular Plural in SA The plural in SA has been a prominent area of investigation and analysis by grammarians, linguists, as well as those who are interested in Semitic phonology and morphology. Forbes (1863:48) listed twenty four patterns of irregular pl. that realize possible broken pls. in SA. He proposed a relationship between the root of the root and the type of irregular pl., concluding that modelling occupies a key position in the formation of such pls. Palmer (1874:132-134) designated nine main patterns or forms of irregular pl.: *fuʕʕal, fuʕlan, fuʕuul, fuʕelaʔ, fewaʕil, fuʕat, feʕlan, fewaʕeel,* and *fiʕal*. He (ibid.) insisted that not all pls. are possible, and some are derived from some other ones. Cowan (1958:200ff) has listed thirty patterns of irregular pl. in SA. He based his classification on the trilateral roots of the verb in SA. Haywood and Nahmad (1965:51-57) suggested eleven categories of irregular pl. as follows; *efʕal, fuʕuul, fiʕal, fuʕul, efʕal, fuʕelaʔ, efʕilaʔ, fuʕlan, feʕalil, feʕaleel,* and *feʕalile*. They (ibid) maintained that irregular plurals are too variant that they must be learned rather than inferred. Murtonen (1964:62-68) and Levy (1971:33f) proposed a criterion-based model for the classification of irregular plural forms in SA in which the vowel quality is the main core. Their model classifies irregular plural forms according to percentages or numbers assigned to these plurals. Moscati (1980:88-92) listed six main categories of irregular pl., adding that the internal change is the common alternation in all of these categories. He claimed that these six categories are the most common form of irregular, whilst the others are minor or rare. Holes (2004:168) believed that semantic extension and metathesis play a significant role in the formation of irregular pl. in SA. He also added that sometimes irregular pls. are extended in order to avoid ambiguity especially in relation to dual or to fem. However, there are two main classifications of irregular pl. in SA that are considered as the main source of broken pls. to date; they are those proposed by Wright (1974) and McCarthy and Prince (1990). <span class="underline">1. Wright (1974:200-231)</span> Wright (1974) classified irregular pl. into thirty one categories. These categories are fuʕul; *rusul “messengers”,*Fiʕel; *khiyem “tents”,* fiʕal; *rijal “men”,* fuʕuul; *muluuk “kings”,* Fuʕʕel; *ʕuzzel “unarmed ones”,* fuʕʕal: *tujjar “traders”,* Feʕele; *qetele “killers”,* Fuʕat; *junat “criminals”,* Fiʕele; *dibebe* “bears”, Efʕel: *ewjuh* “faces/aspects”, efʕal: *eqdam* “legs”, Efʕile: *eʕmide* “pillars”, Fewaʕil: *khewatim* “rings”, Feʕaʔil: *jezaʔir* “islands”, Feeʕlan: *ħeeŧan* “whales”, Fiʕlan: *śibyan* “boys” / fuʕelaʔ: *jubenaʔ* “coward ones”, efʕilaʔ: *eğniyaʔ* “rich people”, fuʕlan: *fursan* “knights”, Feʕla: *merđa* “sick people”, Feʕal: *śeħar* “deserts” Feʕala: še*kawa* “complaints”, Feʕaya: *hedaya* “presents”, Feʕeel: *ʕebeed* “slaves” , fuʕuule: *numuure* “tigers”, Feʕale: *śeħabe* “companions”, Feʕel: *khedem* “servants”, Fiʕel: *rikeb* “riders”, feʕalil: *kewakib* “planets”, feʕaleel: *sekakeen* “knives”, and feʕalile: *esatiðe* “masters/professors.” <span class="underline">2. McCarthy and Prince (1990:213)</span> McCarthy and Prince (1990) limited irregular pl. forms to thirty one categories. They based their classification on Wright’s (1974) categories and thus they put these categories into four main classes of irregular pl. according to syllabification or stresss. Further, they classed only the possible or common categories, after labeling the other ones as rare. *Iambic* class includes the pls. that consist of single unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables.This class includes the categories 1 to 9. *Trochaic* class includes the pls. that consist of long syllables followed by short syllables. This class includes the categories 10 to 14. *Monosyllabic* class includes the pls. that consist of one syllable, or C3 roots with single vowel (V). This class includes the categories 15 to 29, and *Others* including pls. are those that are based on gemination, especially the C3 roots with single vowels. These include the categories 30 to 31. # Remarks on Notation and Transcription All the exemplary data used in this paper are written in a transliterated form, with meaning enclosed in brackets. The sound notation used is partly IPA, as in /ð/ and /ħ/ and partly some English sounds, as in /j/, /y/, /b/, in addition to a few designed symbols, in order to represent all sounds, especially short vowels (Vs) which are not represented or spelt in the written form, and to show the ultimate pronunciation as accurately as possible. Abbreviated symbols containing Cs and Vs denote the pattern of the noun or that of the pl., as in CvCC for *qelb* (heart). Root symbols with overt sounds represent extra sounds, those which are not part of the noun in pl. pattern, as well as the precise form of the noun, as in CaCee for *qaďee* (judge). Patterns with voiced Cs, as in (ʔ) in CuCeCaʔ or (m) in meCCeC, represent the addition of external or non-root Cs to the original root pattern. As for SA templates, they are represented by various forms such as *Faʕil, Fewaʕil,* etc. Based on three main root Cs (f-ʕ-l), taken from the word **<span dir="rtl">ﻓﻌﻞ</span>** (to do) in SA, templates are given these terms in order to represent the structural roots of the word from which these sing. nouns are derived. # Discussion and Categorization Generally, there are two types of pl. in SA; sound or regular pl., and irregular or broken pl. Sound pl. is marked by two suffixes, each according to the gender of the word. Thus, -*at* is used with fem. nouns, whereas –*uun/-een* is used with masc. nouns. Further, there are a few words in SA that can be pluralized with both regular and irregular pl. As for irregular pl., there is no single specific form or affix that marks such pl. Rather, there are many irregular pl. forms that feature various processes or changes in the words related. Moreover, some of these forms are applicable to both fem. and masc. Irregular pls. are discussed in terms of three main aspects; pattern, template, and alternation. Pattern is the phonological, or roughly the consonantal as well as the vocal, structure of the word, represented by C for Consonant. As for Vs, they are either written. e.g. *i/e/u*, or they represented by *v* only. Template stands for the word structure in SA based on the roots <span dir="rtl">ل-/ﻋـ/ﻓـ</span>. Alternation is concerned with all the phonological and morphological changes that take place in a word when it is pluralized. # efʕal cvcvc→vccvc *efʕal* is one of the common irregular forms of pl. in SA, as there are many bilateral and trilateral nouns pluralized in this form. The formation of this pl. involves the addition of (e) at the beginning of the noun as well as the insertion of the long V (a) before the final C. Hence, the pl. is roughly eCCaC. The nouns related are based in sing. on CeCeC, CeCC, CiCC, and CuCC. As for bilateral nouns, they often take CvC, where (v) may be (uu), (ee) or (ou). **Pattern: CeCeC → eCCaC Template: Feʕel Alternation:** 1. Prefixation of a V 2. Elision of the first internal V (e) 3. Lenghthening of the second internal V (e)→(a)**,** as in *qelem (pen)→eqlam (pens)/ ħedeth (event)→eħdath (events)/ kheber (an item of news)→ekhbar (news)/ ŧebeq (dish)→eŧbaq (dishes)/ qedem (foot)→eqdam (feet).* **Pattern: CeCC→eCCaC Template: Feʕl Alternation:** 1. Prefixation of a V (e) 2. Elision of the internal V (e) 3. Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (a), as in *nehr (river)→enhar (rivers)/ ferd (individual)→efrad (individuals).* **Pattern: CiCC → eCCaC Template: Fiʕl Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2. Elision of the internal V (i) 3.Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (a). Examples are *šikl (shape)→eškal (shapes)/ šiʕr (verse)→ešʕar (verses)/ śifr (zero)→eśfar (zeroes)/ thiql (weight)→ethqal (weights)/ milħ (salt)→emlaħ (salts).* **Pattern: CuCC→ eCCaC Template: Fuʕl Alternation:** 1. Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the internal V (u) 3.Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (a), examples include nouns such as *śubĝ (paint)→eśbaĝ (paints)/ ʕumq (deep)→eʕmaq (deeps)/ ʕušb (grass)→eʕšab (grasses)/ buʕd (dimension)→ebʕad (dimensions)/ qurś (disc)→eqraś (discs)/ juzʔ (part)→ejzaʔ (parts)/ ʕumr (age)→eʕmar (ages)/ quŧb (pole)→eqŧab (poles).* In this form of pl., there is a significant change that occurs when the noun is changed from sing. to pl. It is the change of the type of root as to the number of Cs contained in this root. C3 roots become bilateral; this is especially in nouns beginning with (w). In this respect, (w) is changed to a V (ou), which eventually changes the type of the root from trilateral to bilateral, as a C has been removed. Thus, the template *CvCvC* becomes *vCvC* in pl.; ***w**eŧen (home)→**ou**ŧan (homes)/ **w**eled (boy)→**ou**lad (boys)/ **w**eter (string)→**ou**tar (strings)/ **w**erem (tumor)→**ou**ram (tumors).* On the other hand, bilateral roots are changed in template, too. In bilateral nouns, based on CvC, the medial V is changed to (y), if this V is (ee) or (ei) in the sing. root. The pl., therefore, is eCCaC, while it is CvC in sing, as in: *k**ee**s (bag)→ek**y**as (bags)/ d**ee**n (religion)→ed**y**an (religions).* If the medial V is (ou), (uu) or (a), it is changed to (w) in pl.; *k**uu**kh (cottage)→ek**w**akh (cottages)/ r**uu**ħ (soul)→er**w**aħ (souls)/ s**uu**q (market)→es**w**aq (markets)/ s**uu**r (wall)→es**w**ar (walls)/ q**ou**s (bow)→eq**w**as (bows)/ d**ou**r (role)→ed**w**ar (roles)/ k**ou**n (universe)→ek**w**an (universes).* The addition of the pre-initial (e) may as well be affected phonetically by the sort of the first C in the sing. root, and hence, (e) becomes (ei), because that C is (y). Such behaviour can only be accounted for by the fact that (y) is a vowel-like sound; *youm (day)→**ei**yam (days).* However, in bilateral nouns where the medial V is neither of the above Vs, it is (a) as in these two examples, (w), rather than (y), is inserted between the first C and the medial V; *ħal (condition)→eħ**w**al (conditions)= CaC→eCWaC/ mal (money/property)→em**w**al (monies/ properties) = CaC→ eCWaC.* # efʕile This pl. form is used to derive sing. mas. nouns. The sing. nouns included in this pl. are based on a C3 root (three Cs with two internal Vs). The first V is a short voiced non-spelled V (<span dir="rtl">ﻓﺘﺤﺔ،ﺿﻤﺔ ﻛﺴﺮة</span>،), whereas the other V is a long orthographic V. In pl., the short orthographic V (fetħe) is inserted at the beginning and at the end of the noun. Additionally, the first internal short V is elided, while the second long spelled V becomes a short voiced V only. Hence, the change from sing. to pl. involves the prothesis of (e) in a pre-initial C root, the syncope of the first V, the alternation of the second long V to a short one (i), and the addition of (e). The final pl. form of the word will be based on the root v+CCvC+v, where plus-marked Vs denote Vs inserted pre- and post-lexically; e+CCiC+e. The following fig. shows the pluralization of the word *mithal* (example) into *emthile* (examples): <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" width="152pt" height="146pt" viewBox="0 0 152 146" version="1.1"> <g id="surface1"> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 59.421875 8.101562 C 58.375 9.800781 60.695312 11.703125 62.101562 10.300781 C 63.226562 9.175781 62.5 7 61 7 C 60.507812 7 59.792969 7.5 59.421875 8.101562 "/> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 76.5 16.5 C 76.5 26 76.5 26 79 26 C 81.332031 26 81.5 25.648438 81.5 20.75 C 81.5 16.449219 81.835938 15.4375 83.351562 15.148438 C 85.003906 14.835938 85.164062 15.398438 84.851562 20.398438 C 84.507812 25.898438 84.546875 26 87.199219 26 C 89.398438 26 89.78125 25.675781 89.25 24.25 C 88.691406 22.75 88.84375 22.691406 90.300781 23.851562 C 91.261719 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</svg> Nouns pluralized in this form are based on CiCaC, CeCaC, and less frequently CuCaC and CeCeeC. **Pattern: CiCaC→eCCiCe Template: fiʕal Alternation:** 1. Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the short V (i) 3. Shortening of the internal V (a)→(i) 4. Suffixation of a V (e). Examples include *qinaʕ (mask)→eqniʕe (masks)/ siyaj (fence)→esyije (fences).* **Pattern: CeCaC→eCCiCe Template: Feʕal Alternation:** 1.Prefixaion of a V (e) 2.Elision of the short V (e) 3. Shortening of the internal V (a)→(i) 4.Suffixation of a V (e), examples include *šerab (beverage)→ešribe (beverages)/ demaĝ (brain)→edmiĝe (brains)/ mekan (place)→emkine (places)/ nešaŧ (activity)→enšiŧe (activities).* **Pattern: CeCeeC→eCCiCe Template: Feʕeel Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the short V (e) 3.Shortening of the internal V (ee)→(i) 4.Suffixation of a V (e), as in *reśeed (credit)→erśide (credits)/ reśeef (sidewalk)→erśife (sidewalks)/ šereeŧ (stripe)→ešriŧe (stripes)/ ďereeħ (shrine)→eďriħe (shrines).* **Pattern: CuCaC→eCCiCe Template: Fuʕal Alternation:** 1.Prefixationof initial V (e) 2.Elision of the short V (u) 3.Shortening of the internal V (a)→(i) 4.Suffixation of a V (e), as in *fuʔad (heart)→efʔide (hearts)/ suʔal (question)→esʔile (questions)/ turab (sand)→etribe (sands).* If third C in the root is (ʔ), it is replaced by a the semi-vowel (y), to separate the two Vs and to avoid V sequence; *duʕa**ʔ** (prayer/ plea)→edʕi**y**e (prayers/pleas)/ ĝiða**ʔ** (food)→ eĝði**y**e (foods).* Words which are bilateral (have two Cs standing as a root) undergo shift in the final V. Thus, /y/ is inserted after the two Cs to separate the short Vs; ***n**a**d**ee (club) \[2 Cs; n/d\] → e**nd**i**y**e (clubs) \[3 Cs' n/d/y\].* Therefore, this bilateral noun becomes trilateral in pl. Another change occurs in this form represented by the shift in root quality. Here, the C (w) is changed to a V (ou), and the trilateral noun becomes bilateral in root accordingly; ***w**ereed (vein)→**ou**ride (veins)/ **w**isam (insignia)→**ou**sime (insignias).* Notwithstanding this remarkable change in the sing. root, a noun may not change in root, even if this change involves the elision of a C. The noun *wadee* (valley) is bilateral in root, consisting of (w) and (d) as a root, but in pl., (y) is inserted finally to separate the two final short Vs (i) and (e), and thus this new C replaces the elided (w) in pl. *oudiye* (valleys), (d) and (y). # fuʕuul This form includes principally C3 roots, in addition to a few bilateral ones. The C3 root of sing. nouns is commonly CvCC. The internal V is a short voiced sound only (<span dir="rtl">ﻓﺘﺤﺔ</span> or <span dir="rtl">ﻛﺴﺮة</span>). In pl., this root becomes CvCvC. The first internal V, whatever be that V, alternates to a short voiced V (<span dir="rtl">ﺿﻤﺔ</span>). More importantly, such irregular form results in breaking the final C cluster in the sing. by inserting a long V in between. Therefore, the root can best be represented as CvCuuC, to emphasize the insertion of a long V. The fig. below illustrates the change of a sing. noun to pl. in this form through as exemplified in the word *qelb* (heart): Fig. (3) Change of *qelb* (heart) to pl. *quluub* (hearts) where the underlined Vs denote sound alternation. <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" width="165pt" height="164pt" viewBox="0 0 165 164" version="1.1"> <g id="surface1"> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 59.5 21.5 L 59.5 32 L 64.5 32 L 64.199219 21.5 C 63.914062 11.5 63.796875 11 61.699219 11 C 59.585938 11 59.5 11.398438 59.5 21.5 "/> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 78.398438 12.5 C 79.859375 13.960938 85.988281 29 86.0625 31.300781 C 86.082031 31.964844 86.679688 31.449219 87.398438 30.148438 C 88.542969 28.082031 88.339844 26.898438 85.699219 20.300781 C 83.179688 14 82.921875 12.65625 84.101562 11.898438 C 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146 C 104.984375 146.761719 105.601562 146.761719 106.5 146 C 107.398438 145.238281 108.015625 145.238281 108.5 146 C 108.96875 146.734375 109.601562 146.75 110.398438 146.050781 C 111.199219 145.351562 111.96875 145.367188 112.699219 146.101562 C 113.464844 146.863281 114.011719 146.851562 114.5 146.050781 C 114.984375 145.253906 115.601562 145.238281 116.5 146 C 117.398438 146.761719 118.015625 146.761719 118.5 146 C 118.984375 145.238281 119.601562 145.238281 120.5 146 C 121.398438 146.761719 122.015625 146.761719 122.5 146 C 122.984375 145.238281 123.601562 145.238281 124.5 146 C 125.5 146.847656 125.972656 146.800781 126.550781 145.800781 C 126.953125 145.101562 126.929688 144.847656 126.5 145.25 C 126.050781 145.667969 125.148438 145.539062 124.449219 144.949219 C 123.550781 144.195312 123.003906 144.207031 122.5 145 C 122.015625 145.761719 121.398438 145.761719 120.5 145 C 119.601562 144.238281 118.984375 144.238281 118.5 145 C 118.015625 145.761719 117.398438 145.761719 116.5 145 C 115.601562 144.238281 114.984375 144.238281 114.5 145 C 114.015625 145.761719 113.398438 145.761719 112.5 145 C 111.601562 144.238281 110.984375 144.238281 110.5 145 C 110.015625 145.761719 109.398438 145.761719 108.5 145 C 107.601562 144.238281 106.984375 144.238281 106.5 145 C 106.015625 145.761719 105.398438 145.761719 104.5 145 C 103.601562 144.238281 102.984375 144.238281 102.5 145 C 102.015625 145.761719 101.398438 145.761719 100.5 145 C 99.601562 144.238281 98.984375 144.238281 98.5 145 C 97.992188 145.800781 97.351562 145.746094 96.148438 144.800781 C 94.640625 143.609375 94.621094 143.648438 95.898438 145.25 "/> </g> </svg> Most nouns pluralized in this form are mas, but they are turned into fem in pl. **Pattern: CeCC→CuCuuC Template: Feʕl Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (e)→(u) 2.Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (uu). Nouns pluralized through this form denote animals, birds; *nesr (eagle)→nusuur (eagles)/ fehd (leopard)→fuhuud (leopards).* Tools; *keʔs (cup)→kuʔuus (cups)/ feʔs (axe)→fuʔuus (axes).* Bilateral words are doubled in the second C; *def (drum)→dufuuf (drums),* bodily parts; *reʔs (head)→ruʔuus (heads)/ enf (nose)→unuuf (noses).* If the word is bilateral or CvC, the second C is doubled; *kef (palm)→kufuuf (palms).* Groups; *šeʕb (people)→šuʕuub (peoples)/ wefd (delegation)→wufuud (delegations).* Landscape and weather; *sehl (plain)→suhuul (plains)/ thelj (snow)→thuluuj (snows)/ merj (prairie)→muruuj (prairies)/ kehf (cave)→kuhuuf (caves).* Places, institutions; *benk (bank)→bunuuk (banks).* Periods; *šehr (months)→šuhuur (months)/ ʕeśr (era)→ʕuśuur (eras).* Miscellaneous: *bend (chapter/clause)→bunuud (chapters/clauses)/ šeʔn (affair)→šuʔuun (affairs).* The second C in bilateral roots is doubled in pl.; *ref (shelf)→rufuuf (shelves)/ śef (class)→śufuuf (classes)/ fel (remain)→fuluul (remains) / ħeb (grain)→ħubuub (grains).* **Pattern: CiCC→CuCuuC Template: Fiʕl Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (i)→(u) 2. Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (uu), as in *ʕiŧr (odor)→ʕuŧuur (odors)/ qird (ape)→quruud (apes)/ śinf (class)→śunuuf (classes)/ sijn (prison)→sujuun (prisons).* **Pattern: CeCeC or CeCiC→CuCuuC Template:Feʕel Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (e)→(u) 2.Internal V Lenghthening (i)→(uu). Examples are *esed (lion)→usuud (lions)/ śeŧer (line)→śuŧuur (lines)/ melik (king)→muluuk (kings)/ nemir (tiger)→numuur (tigers)* **Pattern: CeiC→ CuyuuC Template:Feiʕ Alternation:** 1.Internal V shortening (ei)→(u) 2. Infixation of the C (y) 3. Infixation of the V (uu). In bilateral roots, the internal V is a diphthong, in which case it is deleted and /y/ is inserted instead to separate the two Vs and to avoid V sequence; *jeiš (army)→juyuuš (armies)/ ʕein (eye)→ʕuyuun (eyes)/ ŧeir (bird)→ŧuyuur (birds)/ beit (house)→buyout (houses)/ jeib (pocket)→juyuub (pockets).* # Feʕalee/ fewaʕil *Feʕalee* is the irregular pl. form that is used to pluralize mas as well fem nouns. It is used with C3 root words. However, the pl. root is quadriliteral (a four C root) in the form of CvCVCvC. If the first internal V is a long one, it will be replaced by (e+w). Hence, this (w) will be the four C added to the root of the sing. noun. The fig. below demonstrates the morphophonemic change in *ʕamil* (factor) to *ʕewamil* (factors); <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" width="131pt" height="152pt" viewBox="0 0 131 152" version="1.1"> <g id="surface1"> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 90.421875 12.101562 C 89.375 13.800781 91.695312 15.703125 93.101562 14.300781 C 94.226562 13.175781 93.5 11 92 11 C 91.507812 11 90.792969 11.5 90.421875 12.101562 "/> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 97.5 20.5 C 97.5 30 97.5 30 100 30 L 102.5 30 L 102.199219 20.5 C 101.914062 11.5 101.785156 11 99.699219 11 C 97.59375 11 97.5 11.398438 97.5 20.5 "/> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 23.75 13.949219 C 22.820312 15.25 22 17.011719 22 17.699219 C 22 19.558594 25.699219 23 27.699219 23 C 29.300781 23 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145.761719 51.5 145 C 50.601562 144.238281 49.984375 144.238281 49.5 145 C 49.015625 145.761719 48.398438 145.761719 47.5 145 C 46.601562 144.238281 45.984375 144.238281 45.5 145 C 45.015625 145.761719 44.398438 145.761719 43.5 145 C 42.601562 144.238281 41.984375 144.238281 41.5 145 C 41.015625 145.761719 40.398438 145.761719 39.5 145 C 38.601562 144.238281 37.984375 144.238281 37.5 145 C 36.992188 145.800781 36.351562 145.746094 35.148438 144.800781 C 33.640625 143.613281 33.621094 143.648438 34.898438 145.25 "/> </g> </svg> **Pattern:CaCiC→CewaCiC Template:Faʕil→Fewaʕil Alternation:**1.Infixationof a V (e) 2.Infixation of a C (w), e.g. *hatif (telephone)→hewatif (telephones)/ ŧabiʕ (stamp)→ŧewabiʕ (stamps).* In this category, there are a few words that denote places; *jamiʕ (mosque)→jewamiʕ (mosques)/ šariʕ (street)→šewariʕ (streets)/ šahid (monument)→šewahid (monuments)/ tabiq (floor)→tewabiq (floors)*. Also, there are words that are water-related; *saʔil (liquid)→sewaʔil (liquids)/ rafid (river branch)→rewafid (river branches)/ saħil (coast)→sewaħil (coasts)/ qarib (boat)→qewarib (boats).* The above replacement helps to change the root of the noun from trilateral in sing. to quadriliteral in pl., having added (w) to the root of the noun. In all these words, the only change occurring is the replacement of the first internal V (a) with (e+w). In fem. nouns, those ending with the suffix (-e), the same rule applies, except that the said suffix is elided. These nouns involve various senses, such as tools; *ŧabiʕe (printer)→ŧewabiʕ (printers)/ barije (warship)→bewarij (warships)/ qafile (caravan)→qewafil (caravans),* and places; *nafiðe (window)→newafið/ qaʕide (base)→qewaʕid (bases)/ ʕaiśme (capital city)→ʕewaśim (capital cities)*. Miscellaneous; *šaʔibe (impurity)→šewaʔib (impurities)/ fakihe (fruit)→fewakih (fruits)/ jariye (maid)→jewaree (maids)/ qafiye (rhyme)→qewafee (rhymes)/ ʕaʔile (family)→ʕewaʔil (families).* If the first V is short and the second one is long, and the word ends with (-e), the second V is replaced by (a) and the glottal C (ʔ) is inserted to prevent the sequence of (a) and (i). As for the fem. suffix (-e), it is deleted. This is common in fem. nouns, as in; *fereeđe (religious duty)→feraʔiđ (religious duties).* **Pattern:CeCeeCe→CeCaʔiC Template: Feʕeele→Feʕaʔil Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (ee) →(a) 2.Infixation of a C (ʔ) 3.Infixation of a V (i) 4. Elision of the final V (e), nouns pluralized as such include *qeśeede (poem)→qeśaʔid (poems)/ reheene (hostage)→rehaʔin (hostages)/ keteebe (battalion)→ketaʔib (battalions)/ qebeele (tribe)→qebaʔil (tribes).* Here, the exception is the word *risale* (message), which has already (a) as a second V, and thus (ʔ+i) is inserted in pl.; *resaʔil* (messages). Nouns which are quadriliteral in root (consisting of four Cs), undergo internal V mutation, in addition to the anaptyxis of (a) relating to the pl. form, as in; *funduq (hotel) →fen**a**diq (hotels)/ zilzal (quake)→zel**a**zil (quakes)/ ʕesker (troop)→ʕes**a**kir (troops).* The fem. suffix (-e) is elided to correspond to the pl. form; *belbele (confusion)→bel**a**bil (confusions)/ mehzele (farce)→meh**a**zil (farces).* The behavior of Vs varies in words, due to the different Vs contained in these words. Words ending with long V (ee) may have an insertion of (a) between the second and the final C root, as in *kursee* (chair)→*kerasee* (chairs). On the other hand, an orthographically similar word, like *nadee* (club), undergoes only insertion of (e+w) after the first C, and thus it is pluralized as *newadee* (clubs). Interestingly, such behavior can be noticed even in C3 root nouns. Here, a different set of sounds is introduced, represented by (e+y+a) instead of (e+w). This is confined to the nouns the first internal V of which is the diphthong (ei); *heikel (skeleton)→heyakil (skeletons)/ beideq (pawn)→beyadiq (pawns).* There are many words in SA which begin with the suffix *me-*, taking this type of pl. This prefix is non-root C, .i.e., it is not original in the root, and it is added to these words to give the meaning of '' a place where something is done'', as such prefix is not in the C3 root of these words. It is the C3 root that implies the meaning of the stem, rather than the non-root C (*me-*). Hence, for example, in *mekteb* (office), the C3 root *k-t-b* implies the meaning of 'writing', from which that word takes its final meaning ' a place for writing.' Additionaly, a few pls. share the same template and form including names of animal, bird, or insect-related; *ʕašib (herbivorous)→ʕewašib (herbivouroses)/ zaħif (reptile)→zewaħif (reptiles)/ qariđ (rodent)→qewariđ (rodents)/ beheeme (beast)→behaʔim (beasts)/ sinjab (squirrel)→senajib (squirrels)/ sulħefat (turtle)→selaħif (turtles)/ ʕeqreb (scorpion)→ʕeqarib (scorpions)/ newres (seagull)→newaris (seagulls)/ jariħ (bird of prey)→jewariħ (birds of prey)/ ħewafir (hoofs)/ qewadim (forelegs)/ laħim (carnivorous)→lewaħim (carnivorouses).* **Pattern: meCCeC→meCaCiC Template: mefʕel→mefaʕil Alternation:** 1.Breaking the medial CC by infixing a long V (a) 2.Internal V mutation (e)→(i). Most words here imply ‘a place where something is done’; *meʕhed (institute)→meʕahid (institutes)/ merfeʔ (harbor)→merafiʔ (harbors)/ merkez (center)→merakiz (centers)/ mesreħ (theatre)→mesariħ (theatres) /melʕeb (stadium)→melaʕib (stadiums)/ menjem (mine)→menajim (mines)/ mesken (residence)→mesakin (residences)/ menfeð (outlet)→menafið (outlets)/ mesbeħ (swimming pool)→mesabiħ (swimming pools)/ mekhzen (store)→mekhazin (stores)/* *meśref (bank)→meśarif (banks)/ meŧbekh (kitchen)→meŧabikh (kitchens)/ meśneʕ (factory)→meśaniʕ (factories)/ meŧʕem (restaurant)→meŧaʕim (restaurants).* There is another sense implied here that suggests a place through which something passes; *meʕber (crossing)→meʕabir (crossings)/ medkhel (entrance)→medakhil (entrances)/ mekhrej (exit)→mekharij (exits)/ menfeð (outlet)→menafið (outlets).* Miscellaneous; *meʕlem (monument)→meʕalim (monuments)/ merkeb (boat)→merakib (boats)/ meqleb (trick)→meqalib (tricks).* In fem. nouns, the suffix (-e) is deleted; *menŧeqe (area)→menaŧiq (areas)/ mezreʕe (farm)→mezariʕ (farms)/ medrese (school)→medaris (schools)/ meqbere (cemetery)→meqabir (cemeteries)/ meʕreke (battle)→meʕarik (battles)/ melħeme (epic)→melaħim (epics)/merħele (stage)→meraħil (stages)/ meħkeme (court)→meħakim (courts)/ meŧħene (mill)→meŧaħin (mills).* In C2 roots, the final V is changed to (ee). Again, the sense here has to do with place; *mešfa (hospital)→mešafee (hospitals)/ meśfa (refinery)→meśafee (refineries)/ meqha (café)→meqahee (cafes)/ mersa (marina)→merasee (marinas)/ melha (cabaret)→melahee (cabarets).* Exceptions in sense and in gender; *leila (night)→leyalee (nights).* There are a few words have the pre-final V as /i/ rather than /e/, with a locative sense, including; *mejlis (session)→mejalis (sessions)/ mesjid (mosques)→mesajid (mosques)/ menzil (house)→menazil (houses)/ mouqif (situation)→mewaqif (situations)/ mouqid (fireplace)→mewaqid (fireplaces).* Exceptions; *mourid (resource)→mewarid (resources)/ mousim (season)→mewasim (seasons).* Some words denote tools, instruments, equipment, .etc; *melbes (cloth)→melabis (clothes)/ medfeʕ (cannon)→medafiʕ (cannons)/ merjel (boiler)→merajil (boilers)/ mikbes (button)→mekabis (buttons)/ mekbeħ (brake)→mekabiħ (brakes)/ miʕoul (pickax)→meʕawil (pickaxes).* However, if the third C is (y) or (ʔ), it is elided along with the preceding and the following V and it will be replaced by the V (ee); *umniye (wish)→emanee (wishes)/ uħjiye (riddle)→eħajee (riddles)/ uĝniye (song)→eĝanee (songs)/ uđħiye (offering)→eđaħee (offerings)/ inaʔ (pot)→ewanee (pots)/ yed (hand)→eiyadee (hands).* Animals; *seħliye (lizard)→seħalee (lizards)/ efʕa (snake)→efaʕee (snakes).* Landscapes; *śeħraʔ (desert)→śeħaree (deserts)/ ber (wild)→beraree (wilds).* It is worth mentioning that in all of these above words, if the first internal V is not a short one, it is also elided and (e+w) is inserted instead; *z**ou**beʕe (storm)→z**ew**abiʕ (storms)/ ś**ou**meʕe (silo)→s**ew**amiʕ (silo)/ q**ou**qeʕe (shell)→q**ew**aqiʕ (shells)/ k**ou**keb (planet)→k**ew**akib (planets)/ n**ou**res (seagull)→ne**w**aris (seagulls )/ j**ou**here (gem)→ j**ew**ahir (gems).* # fuʕelaʔ This form is used to derive irregular pl. for trilateral nouns that are mas. as a whole. The C3 root consists of three Cs and two Vs. The first V is a short or long V, but the second V is a long one. However, the pl. here is quadriliteral in root, as another C, that is (ʔ), is added at the end of the sing. noun when pluralized. The final pl. form is: CvCvCvC or more precisely as CuCeCaʔ. 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Most nouns here denote positions, occupations, and the like; *reʔees (president)→ruʔesaʔ (presidents)/ emeen (secretary)→umenaʔ (secretaries)/ ʕeđeem (great)→ʕuđemaʔ (greats)/ sefeer (ambassador)→suferaʔ (ambassadors)/ emeer (prince)→umeraʔ (princes)/ edeeb (man of letters)→udebaʔ (men of letters)/ fereeq (rival)→fureqaʔ (rivals)/ ʕemeed (dean)→ʕumedaʔ (deans)/ kheŧeeb (orator)→khuŧebaʔ (orators)/ ħeleef (ally)→ħulefaʔ (allies)/ kheleefe (caliph/successor)→khulefaʔ (caliphs/successors).* Additionally, there are certain nouns that imply specific temporary or permanent adjectives; *ĝereeb (stranger)→ĝurebaʔ (strangers)/ qedeem (ancient)→qudemaʔ (ancients)/ bekheel (miser)→bukhelaʔ (misers)/ neđeer (counterpart)→nuđeraʔ (counterparts)/ kereem (generous)→kuremaʔ (generous ones).* **Pattern: CaCiC→CuCelaʔ Template: Faʕil→fuʕelaʔ Alternation:** 1. Shortening of the first internal V (a)→(u) 2. Mutation of the second internal V (i) →(e) 3.Suffixation of (-aʔ), as in *š**a**ʕir (poet)→š**u**ʕeraʔ (poets)/ ʕ**a**lim (scholar)→ʕ**u**lemaʔ (scholars)/ b**a**ʔis (miserable)→b**u**ʔesaʔ (miserable ones)/ j**a**hil (ignorant)→j**u**helaʔ (ignorant ones)/ jeb**an** (coward)/ (coward)→jub**e**naʔ (cowards).* # feʕaya *Feʕaya* is an irregular pl. form used to pluralize fem. sing. nouns that are C3 or C2 in root, of which the root is CvCvCv. The pl. root is also CvCvCv. 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Hence; *khelaya* (*cells*). The majority of nouns related are pluralized through this change; **Pattern: CeCiye → CeCaya Template: Feʕiye→Feʕaya Alternation:** 1.Lenghthening of the second internal V (i)→(a) 2.Lenghthening of the second internal V (e) → (a), e.g. *weśiye (will)→weśaya (wills)/ reʕiye (subject)→reʕaya (subjects)/ hediye (gift)→hedaya (gifts)/ šeđiye (fragment)→šeđaya (fragments)/ śebiye (lass)→śebaya (lasses)/ qeďiye (issue)→qeďaya (issues)/* *sejiye(character)→sejaya (characters)/ beliye (distress)→belaya (distresses)/ beqiye (remain)→beqaya (remains)/ ʕeŧiye (donation)→ʕeŧaya (donations).* If the final C is (ʔ), it is changed to (y) in pl.; *kheŧeeʔe (sin) →kheŧaya (sins)/ khebeeʔe (hidden thing)→khebaya (hidden things)/ rezeeʔe (calamity)→rezaya (calamities)/ mirʔa (mirror)→meraya (mirrors)/ ʕeđaʔe (lizard)→ʕeđaya (lizards).* Words which are bilateral in root or which end with (y) or V, have this (y) or V deleted and (-*aya*) is affixed instead; *beĝee (prostitutes)→beĝaya (prostitutes)/ sebee (captive)→sebaya (captives)/ neeye (intention)→newaya (intentions)/ meeze (merit)→mezaya (merits).* Some nouns are already in pl. e.g. *seħaya (meningitis).* # fiʕel *Fiʕel* is a pl. form used to pluralize sing. fem. nouns, that are C2 or C3 in root. Nouns pluralized in this form can be classified into three main subtypes. The first subtype includes the bilateral nouns that consist of a C followed by a geminate, morphemically represented as CvCgv, where Cg stands for consonantal gemination. Gemination is the doubling of a single or certain C in the word. The Fig. below explains how such sing. nouns are pluralized; <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" width="235pt" height="237pt" viewBox="0 0 235 237" version="1.1"> <g id="surface1"> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 70 7 C 68.898438 8.101562 68 9.898438 68 11 C 68 16.5 77.109375 19.273438 77.847656 14 C 78.046875 12.601562 78.707031 11.171875 79.351562 10.75 C 80 10.324219 79.199219 10.042969 77.5 10.101562 C 75.800781 10.15625 75.042969 10.417969 75.75 10.699219 C 76.425781 10.972656 77 12.300781 77 13.601562 C 77 15.5 76.5 16 74.601562 16 C 71.503906 16 69.765625 13.800781 70.175781 10.398438 C 70.613281 6.800781 73.351562 5.078125 76 6.742188 C 77.101562 7.433594 78 7.59375 78 7.101562 C 78 6.097656 75.601562 5 73.398438 5 C 72.628906 5 71.101562 5.898438 70 7 "/> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 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of the doubled C, and therefore the word *qimme* (summit), for example, becomes *qimem* (summits) in pl., by inserting a short unwritten V in between. Most nouns pluralized in this form take the form of CiCeC. As for the final V in the sing. noun, it is elided in pl.; **Pattern: CiC²e Template: Fiʕʕe→Fiʕeʕ Alternation:** 1.Degemination of the second root C by infixing a V (e) 2. Elision of the final V, nouns related are *qiŧŧe (cat)→qiŧeŧ (cats)/ ʕille (cause)→ʕilel (causes)/ ðimme (protection)→ðimem (protections)/ ville (villa)→vilel(villas)/ himme (determination)→himem (determinations).* The most significant morphophonemic change here is that bilateral root words become trilateral. Words can be unilateral (mono-consonantal); *umme (nation) →umem (nations).* Some nouns are always used in pl.; *ħimem (lavas).* But, if the word is already C3 in root, then only a short V is infixed to separate the final Cs. Abstract or ideational aspects; *ħikme (wisdom)→ħikem (wisdoms)/ ʕibre (moral)→ʕiber (morales).* Jobs and occupations; *mihne (job)→mihen (jobs)/ ħirfe (profession)→ħiref (professions).* Collective groups or entities; *furqe (band)→fureq (bands)/ kutle (bloc)→kutel (blocs)/ usre (family)→user (families).* Miscellaneous; *nisbe (portion)→niseb (portions)/ ibre (needle)→iber (needles)/ jumle (sentence)→jumel (sentences)/ kulfe (cost)→kulef (costs).* (y) or (w) is inserted in the bilateral nouns containing long Vs or diphthongs in the middle, to separate the surrounding short Vs and to avoid V sequence. Also, the final (-e) fem. suffix is deleted. Hence, such words are changed in root from bilateral in sing. to trilateral in pl.; *kheime (tent)→khiyem/ śeeĝe (format)→śiyeĝ (formats)/ seere (biography)→siyer (biographies).* # feʕaleel This is a pl. form used to derive the pl. of many mas. as well fem. sing. nouns that are C3 or C4 in root. The root of the pl. is quadriliteral; CvCvCvC, or more precisely as CeCaCeeC, for quadriliteral sing. nouns, and CeWaCeeC for trilateral sing. nouns. This pl. root is shown in the Fig. below. 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218.238281 109.984375 218.238281 109.5 219 C 109.015625 219.761719 108.398438 219.761719 107.5 219 C 106.601562 218.238281 105.984375 218.238281 105.5 219 C 105.015625 219.761719 104.398438 219.761719 103.5 219 C 102.601562 218.238281 101.984375 218.238281 101.5 219 C 101.015625 219.761719 100.398438 219.761719 99.5 219 C 98.601562 218.238281 97.984375 218.238281 97.5 219 C 97.015625 219.761719 96.398438 219.761719 95.5 219 C 94.601562 218.238281 93.984375 218.238281 93.5 219 C 93.015625 219.761719 92.398438 219.761719 91.5 219 C 90.601562 218.238281 89.984375 218.238281 89.5 219 C 89.015625 219.761719 88.398438 219.761719 87.5 219 C 86.601562 218.238281 85.984375 218.238281 85.5 219 C 85.015625 219.761719 84.398438 219.761719 83.5 219 C 82.601562 218.238281 81.984375 218.238281 81.5 219 C 81.015625 219.761719 80.398438 219.761719 79.5 219 C 78.601562 218.238281 77.984375 218.238281 77.5 219 C 77.015625 219.761719 76.398438 219.761719 75.5 219 C 74.601562 218.238281 73.984375 218.238281 73.5 219 C 73.015625 219.761719 72.398438 219.761719 71.5 219 C 70.601562 218.238281 69.984375 218.238281 69.5 219 C 69.015625 219.761719 68.398438 219.761719 67.5 219 C 66.601562 218.238281 65.984375 218.238281 65.5 219 C 65.015625 219.761719 64.398438 219.761719 63.5 219 C 62.601562 218.238281 61.984375 218.238281 61.5 219 C 60.992188 219.800781 60.351562 219.746094 59.148438 218.800781 C 57.640625 217.613281 57.621094 217.648438 58.898438 219.25 "/> </g> </svg> **Pattern: MiCCaC→MeCaCeeC Template: Mifʕal→Mefaʕeel Alternation:** 1. mutation of the first internal V (i) → (e) 2. Infixation of a long V (a) 2\. Mutation of the second internal V (a)→ (ee). Nouns pluralized here mostly denote tools, equipment, devices, and the like; *miśbaħ (lamp)→meśabeeħ (lamps)/ finjan (cup)→fenajeen (cups)/ mizmar (pipe)→mezameer (pipes)/ miħrar (thermometer)→meħareer/ mismar (nail)→mesameer (nails)/ minšar (saw) menašeer (saws)/ miqdar (measure)→meqadeer (measures).* Included in this are a few fem. nouns; *qaruure (glass)→qewareer (glasses)/ masuure (pipe)→mewaseer (pipes)/ ŧaħuune (mill)→ŧewaħeen (mills).* Others denote animals; *sinjab (squirrel)→senajeeb (squirrels)/ timsaħ (crocodile)→temaseeħ (crocodiles).* Some other nouns may refer to written things; *teśreeħ (permission)→teśareeħ (permissions)/ tefseer (interpretation)→tefaseer (interpretations)/ teqreer (report)→teqareer (reports)/ tewqeeʕ (signature)→tewaqeeʕ (signatures)/ tareekh (date)→tewareekh (dates).* Natural or emotional aspects; *iʕśar (storm)→eʕaśeer (storm)/ iħsas (feeling)→eħasees (feelings).* **Pattern: CaCuuC→CewaCeeC Template:Faʕuul→Fewaʕeel Root: C3→ C4 Alternation:** 1.Infixation of the syllable (ew) 2.Mutation of the second internal V (uu)→(ee). Again, some nouns here are concerned with tools, devices, or equipment; *tabuut (coffin)→tewabeet (coffins)/ śaruukh (missile)→śewareekh (missiles)/ ħasuub (computer)→ħewaseeb (computers)/ fanuus (lantern)→fewanees* *(lanterns)/ ibreeq (kettle)→ebareeq (kettles)/ sikkeen (knife)→sekakeen (knives).* Abstract laws, regulations, or non-animate aspects; *kabuus (nightmare)→kewabees (nightmares)/ namuus (laws of nature)→newamees (laws of nature)/ qanuun (law)→qewaneen (laws).* Animate attributes; *ŧaĝuut (tyrant)→ŧewaĝeet (tyrants)/ śindeed (valiant)→śenadeed (valiant ones)/ jasuus (spy)→jewasees (spies)/ tilmeeð (pupil)→telameeð (pupils).* Birds or animals; *ŧawuus (peacock)→ŧewawees (peacocks)/ beŧreeq (penguin)→beŧareeq (penguins).* Imaginary entities or creatures; *tinneen (dragon)→tenaneen (dragons)/ ʕifreet (demon)→ʕefareet (demons).* Activities or actions; *timreen (exercise)→temareen (exercises)/ ikleel (wreath)→ekaleel (wreaths).* Locative references; *ŧabuur (queue)→ŧewabeer (queues)/ iqleem (region)→eqaleem (regions).* In SA, there are certain nouns are always used in pl.; *metarees (barricades)/ teraweeħ (nightly prayers at Ramadan)/ teʕaleem (teachings)/ tefaśeel (details)/ teʕabeer (expressions)/ tebašeer (good or early news)/ ħeðafeer (sides)/ esareer (facial lineaments)/ eqaweel (telltales).* In trilateral nouns with the first internal V is a long one (ei) or (ee), this long V is shortened to (e) and (ya) is infixed. As for the second internal V, it is mutated to (ee); *meidan (square)→meyadeen (squares)*. Most words here have to do with measurement or the related senses; *meezan (scale)→mewazeen (scales)/ meeʕad (appointment)→mewaʕeed (appointments)/ meeqat (appointed time)→mewaqeet (appointed times)/ deenar (dinar)→denaneer (dinars).* Some nouns are borrowings; *sirdab (vault)→seradeeb (vaults)/ fustan (dress)→fesateen (dresses)/ dihleez (vestibule)→dehaleez (vestibules)/ binŧal (trousers)→benaŧeel (trousers)/ sirwal (pants)→seraweel (pants)/ derweesh (dervish)→deraweesh (dervishes)/ bermeel (barrel)→berameel (barrels)/ dulfeen (dolphin)→delafeen (dolphins).* **Pattern: CuC²aC Template: fuʕʕal→Feʕaʕeel Root: C4 Alternation:**1.Mutation of the first internal V (u)→(e) 2.Degemination of the internal C geminate by infixing a V (a) 3.Mutation of the second internal V (a)→(ee) Animals, birds, or insects; *thuʕban (snake)→theʕabeen (snakes)/ ʕuśfuur (sparrow)→ʕeśafeer (sparrows)/ dubbuur (hornet)→debabeer (hornets).* Animate or human attributes; *rubban (captain)→rebabeen (captains)/ śulŧan (sultan)→śelaŧeen (sultans)/ menduub (envoy)→menadeeb (envoys).* Locative references; *šubbak (window)→šebabeek (windows)/ bustan (garden)→besateen (gardens).* Natural aspects or phenomena; *ukhduud (groove)→ekhadeed (grooves)/ uħfuur (fossil)→eħafeer (fossils)/ burkan (volcano)→berakeen (volcanoes).* Tools or equipment; *unbuub (pipe)→enabeeb (pipes)/ śunduuq (box)→śenadeeq (boxes)/ dubbuus (pin)→(debabees)/ śunbuur (faucet)→śenabeer (faucets).* Written works; *ʕunwan (address)→ʕenaween (addresses)/ dustuur (constitution)→desateer/ uŧruuħe (thesis)→eŧareeħ (theses)*. Spiritual, religious, or mythical associations; *qurban (offering)→qerabeen (offerings)*/ *uśŧuure (legend)→eśaŧeer (legends)/ teʕweeðe (charm)→teʕaweeð (charms)/ terneeme (hymn)→teraneem (hymns).* # efʕilaʔ *efʕilaʔ* is an irregular form for mas. nouns. Nouns pluralized in this form are C2 or C3 in root, formed as CvCv or CvCvC. In pl., two suprafixes, which are not lexically found in the sing. root, are added. The first is an initial V (prothesis) and the second one is the V (a) + the C (ʔ). As for the internal changes, they are mostly restricted to the change of the long V to a short unwritten one, and the elision of the first short V. 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229.199219 94.5 229.152344 93.5 230 C 92.601562 230.761719 91.984375 230.761719 91.5 230 C 91.015625 229.238281 90.398438 229.238281 89.5 230 C 88.601562 230.761719 87.984375 230.761719 87.5 230 C 87.015625 229.238281 86.398438 229.238281 85.5 230 C 84.601562 230.761719 83.984375 230.761719 83.5 230 C 83.015625 229.238281 82.398438 229.238281 81.5 230 C 80.601562 230.761719 79.984375 230.761719 79.5 230 C 79.015625 229.238281 78.398438 229.238281 77.5 230 C 76.601562 230.761719 75.984375 230.761719 75.5 230 C 75.015625 229.238281 74.398438 229.238281 73.5 230 C 72.601562 230.761719 71.984375 230.761719 71.5 230 C 71.015625 229.238281 70.398438 229.238281 69.5 230 C 68.601562 230.761719 67.984375 230.761719 67.5 230 C 67.015625 229.238281 66.398438 229.238281 65.5 230 C 64.601562 230.761719 63.984375 230.761719 63.5 230 C 63.03125 229.265625 62.398438 229.25 61.601562 229.949219 C 60.800781 230.648438 60.03125 230.632812 59.300781 229.898438 C 58.535156 229.136719 57.988281 229.148438 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root. The following are examples of such words, that undergo the same change in pl.; **Pattern: CeCeeC→eCCiCaʔ Template: Feʕeel→efʕilaʔ Root: C3→C4 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the first internal V (e) 3.Shortening of the final V (ee)→(i) 4.Suffixation of (yaʔ). Examples are *bereeʔ (innocent)→ebriyaʔ (innocents)/ qereeb (relative)→eqribaʔ (relatives).* In nouns where the last two root Cs are identical, they are merged into a single C geminate. Most words of this category are either nouns; *reqeeq (slave)→eriqqaʔ (slaves)/ deleel (guide)→edillaʔ (guides)/ ŧebeeb (doctor)→eŧibbaʔ (doctors)*, or attributes; *šedeed (tough)→šhiddaʔ (tough ones)/ ʕezeez (dear)→eʕizzaʔ (dear ones)/ ħebeeb (beloved) →iħibbaʔ (beloved ones).* Further to the above, there are several nouns that are bilateral in root (containing two Cs in sing. case), which also become trilateral in pl. The said words are often CvCv, or CeCee. In pl., the first short V is elided, while the second V at the end, which is usually a diphthong, is not only elided, but is also replaced by a short V and then followed by (y) to avoid sequence with the following V; **Pattern: CeCee→eCCiyaʔ Template: Feʕee→efʕiyaʔ Root: C2→C4 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the internal V (e) 3.Final V shortening (ee)→(i) 4. Suffixation of the syllable (yaʔ). Except for the noun *nebee (prophet)→enbiyaʔ (prophets),* most nouns here denote animate attributes; *theree (rich)→ethriyaʔ (rich ones)/ ðekee (smart)→eðkiyaʔ (smart ones)/ ĝebee (stupid)→eĝbiyaʔ (stupid ones)/ ĝenee (rich)→eĝniyaʔ (rich ones)/ šeqee (wretched)→ešqiyaʔ (wretched ones)/ qewee (strong)→eqwiyaʔ (strong ones).* Moreover, if the first C in the root is (w), it is substituted by the long V (ou);***w**eśee (custodian)→**ou**śiyaʔ (custodians)/ **w**elee (patron)→**ou**liyaʔ (patrons)/ **w**efee (loyal)→**ou**fiyaʔ (loyal ones).* # fuʕʕal This an irregular pl. form to change sing. mas nouns into pl. Such nouns are C3 in root, mostly as *Faʕil,* or CvCvC (CaCiC). In addition, the second C in the root is doubled to form an internal gemination. 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181.761719 90.5 181 C 90.984375 180.238281 91.601562 180.238281 92.5 181 C 93.398438 181.761719 94.015625 181.761719 94.5 181 C 94.984375 180.238281 95.601562 180.238281 96.5 181 C 97.398438 181.761719 98.015625 181.761719 98.5 181 C 98.984375 180.238281 99.601562 180.238281 100.5 181 C 101.398438 181.761719 102.015625 181.761719 102.5 181 C 102.984375 180.238281 103.601562 180.238281 104.5 181 C 105.5 181.847656 105.972656 181.824219 106.550781 180.898438 C 106.988281 180.199219 106.84375 179.96875 106.199219 180.351562 C 105.601562 180.703125 104.804688 180.523438 104.449219 179.949219 C 104 179.222656 103.398438 179.238281 102.5 180 C 101.601562 180.761719 100.984375 180.761719 100.5 180 C 100.015625 179.238281 99.398438 179.238281 98.5 180 C 97.601562 180.761719 96.984375 180.761719 96.5 180 C 96.015625 179.238281 95.398438 179.238281 94.5 180 C 93.601562 180.761719 92.984375 180.761719 92.5 180 C 92.015625 179.238281 91.398438 179.238281 90.5 180 C 89.601562 180.761719 88.984375 180.761719 88.5 180 C 88.015625 179.238281 87.398438 179.238281 86.5 180 C 85.601562 180.761719 84.984375 180.761719 84.5 180 C 84.015625 179.238281 83.398438 179.238281 82.5 180 C 81.601562 180.761719 80.984375 180.761719 80.5 180 C 80.015625 179.238281 79.398438 179.238281 78.5 180 C 77.601562 180.761719 76.984375 180.761719 76.5 180 C 76.015625 179.242188 75.351562 179.273438 74.351562 180.101562 C 73.105469 181.128906 73 180.898438 73.589844 178.5 C 74.429688 175.09375 73 174 67.699219 174 C 65.699219 174 64 173.539062 64 173 C 64 172.457031 65.101562 172 66.398438 172 C 69.5 172 72.304688 169.296875 71.6875 166.898438 C 71.355469 165.601562 71.722656 164.96875 72.851562 164.898438 C 73.785156 164.84375 73.199219 164.464844 71.5 164.023438 C 66.699219 162.785156 65.214844 162.890625 63.542969 164.601562 Z M 69.59375 166.5 C 70.332031 169.5 69.46875 171 67 171 C 65 171 63.289062 167.003906 64.472656 165.101562 C 65.714844 163.105469 68.980469 164 69.59375 166.5 "/> <path style=" stroke:none;fill-rule:nonzero;fill:rgb(0%,0%,0%);fill-opacity:1;" d="M 78.199219 164.199219 C 76.699219 165.699219 76.605469 167 78 167 C 78.582031 167 79 166.351562 79 165.449219 C 79 164.394531 79.699219 164.003906 81.199219 164.226562 C 84.5 164.710938 84.398438 166.617188 81 168.03125 C 77 169.699219 75.644531 172.125 77.382812 174.5 C 78.285156 175.730469 79.300781 176.0625 80.601562 175.550781 C 82.417969 174.832031 82.398438 174.761719 80.199219 173.921875 C 77.398438 172.855469 77.398438 171.542969 80.199219 169.550781 C 83.300781 167.339844 84.144531 167.601562 83.949219 170.699219 C 83.667969 175.199219 83.914062 176.195312 85.199219 175.765625 C 86.585938 175.304688 86.359375 167.5 84.882812 164.699219 C 83.828125 162.699219 79.988281 162.414062 78.199219 164.199219 "/> </g> </svg> In this Fig., *katib* (writer) is changed to *kuttab* (writers). In brief, the change from sing. to pl. involves an internal mutation of Vs; the first long V becomes a short unwritten V, and the second short unwritten V becomes a long written V, plus the doubling of the medial C. **Pattern: CaCiC →CuC ²aC Template: Faʕil → fuʕʕal Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Internal V shortening (a)→(u) 2.Gemination of the internal C 3.Internal V lenghthening (i) → (a). In general, the majority of nouns here suggest the sense of ‘one who does or performs’, hence; *ħaris (guard)→ħurras (guards)/ ħakim (ruler)→ħukkam (rulers)/ qariʔ (reader)→qurraʔ (readers)/ naqid (critic)→nuqqad (critics)/ đabiŧ(officer)→đubbaŧ (officers)/ malik (owner)→mullak (owners)/ śaniʕ (maker)→śunnaʕ (makers)/ rakib (passenger)→rukkab (passengers).* Permanent or temporary attributes; *ʕazib (bachelor)→ʕuzzab (bachelors)/ ʕašiq (lover)→ʕuššaq (lovers)/ fajir (wanton)→fujjar (wantons)/ ʕaðil (blamer)→ʕuððal (blamers)/ kafir (disbeliever)→kuffar (disbelievers).* Positions or occupations; *kahin (priest)→kuhhan (priests)/ tajir (tradesman)→tujjar (tradesman)/ waʕiđ (preacher)→wuʕʕađ (preachers)/ ŧalib (student)→ŧullab (students)/ ʕamil (worker)→ʕummal (workers).* There is also a sense of over-performing of things, duties, or jobs, as in; *zahid (ascetic)→zuhhad (ascetics)/ ʕabid (worshipper)→ʕubbad (worshippers).* If the second C is (ʔ), it is changed to (w) in pl.; *zaʔir (visitor)→zuwwar (visitors)/ raʔid (pioneer)→ruwwad (pioneers)/ saʔiħ (tourist)→suwwaħ (tourists)/ naʔib (deputy)→nuwwab (deputies).* The few words which are C2 in root become C3 in pl. The form of these words in sing., which is (CaC), becomes *CuCCan*. The internal long V (a) becomes a short unwritten one (u), the second C is doubled, and thus forming a gemination, and (a+n) is added at the end; *šab (youngman)→šubban (youngmen).* Notwithstanding this change which is limited to a very few words in SA, there is a similar word that shows a slightly minor change to the above; *ħaj (pilgrim)→ħujjaj (pilgrims).* # feʕalile This is quite uncommon form of irregular pl. being restricted to quadriliteral or quinqeliteral words or words borrowed from other languages. **Pattern: CeCCeCee→CeCaCiCe Template: Feʕlelee→feʕalilie Root:C4 Alternation:** 1.Breaking the medial CC by infixing a V (a) 2.Internal V mutation (e) →(i) 3.Shortening of the final V (ee) → (e). Words here are either positions or attributes; *śeidelee (pharmacist)→śeyadile (pharmacists)/ ʕebqeree (genius)→ʕebaqire (geniuses).* **Pattern: CuCCan →CeCaCiCe Template: fuʕlan → feʕalilie Root: C4 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (u)→(e) 2.Breaking the medial CC by infixing a V (a) 3. Shortening of the internal V (a) →(i) 4.Suffixation of a V (e). Positions or occupations; *qurśan (pirate)→qeraśine (pirates)/ rubban (captains)→rebabine (captains)/ duhqan (chief)→dehaqine (chiefs)*. Included in this are the nouns which are Arabicized or loanwords; *feilesuuf (philosopher)→felasife (philosophers)/ duktor (doctor)→dekatire (doctors)/ ustað (master/professor)→esatiðe (masters/professors)/ qubŧan (captain)→qebaŧine (captains)/ jillouz (policeman)→jelawize (policemen)/ zibnee (keeper of order)→zebaniye (keepers of order)/ simsar (broker/agent)→semasire (brokers/ agents).* Some nouns are always in pl.; *sewasiye (equals)* from *sewaʔ (equal).* Compound nouns, or nouns which are C5 (consisting of five Cs as a root), which is very rare in SA; *ʕebdullah (Abdullah)→ʕebadile* (persons called *Abdullah*). Ethnic associtions; *śihyonee (Zionist)→śehayine (Zionists).* Nouns borrowed from Greek or Latin that refer to the titles of kings, monarchs, rulers, etc.; *imberaŧor (emperor)→ebaŧire (emperors)/ kisra (Chosroe)→ekasire (Chosroes)/ qeiśer (Caesar)→qeyaśire (Caesars)/ firʕoun (Pharaoh)→feraʕine (Pharaohs).* Of which are the words that refer to religious ranks, positions, etc, whether they are SA as in; *qes (vicar)→qesawise (vicars)/ usquf (bishop)→esaqife (bishops)/ khuuree (vicar)→khewarine (vicars)/ shemmas (deacon)→shemamise (deacons)*, or borrowed from other languages, such as; *kardeenal (cardinal)→keradile (cardinals)/ meŧran (archbishop)→meŧarine (archbishops)/ beŧreerik (patriarch)→beŧarike (patriarch).* The words *kardeenal* and *beŧreerik* are pluralized as *keradile* and *beŧarlike* respectively, by eliding the final or the pre-final C in the sing. root. This is due to the fact that the above words are C5 in root, and having a five C root is not a possible sequence in SA. However, in *imberaŧor*, which is C5 in root too, the pl. is *ebaŧire*, as two Cs have been elided to model the required form of pl. sequence *feʕalile*. There are the nouns that refer to ethnic or historical groups, peoples, nationalities, including religious or political groups or entities and the like. Such nouns are often quadriliteral and are used almost in pl.; *menaðire (Muntherids)/ beramike (Barmakids)/ yeʕaqibe (Jacobeans)/ ħenabile (Puritans)/ yeʕarube (Yarubids)/ śeqalibe (Slavs)/ beŧalime (Ptolemaics)/ qebariśe (Cypriots)/ efariqe (Africans)/ meĝaribe (From the Maghreb countries)/ belašife (Bolsheviks)/ menašife (Mensheviks)/ selajiqe (Seljuks) /ĝesasine (Ghassanids)/ qeramiŧe (Carmatians)/ mewarine (Maronites)/ ezariqe (Ezariqids)/ Eĝalibe (Aghlabids).* In addition, there are some words which denote extraordinary qualities or characters, such as; *jehbeð (great sscholar)→jehabiðe (great scholars)/ ʕimlaq (giant)→ʕemaliqe (giants)/ jebbar (titan)→jebbabire (titan)/ berberee (Barbarian)→berabire (Barbarians)/ melak (angel)→melaʔike (angels).* Miscellaneous; *śoulejan (scepter)→śewalije (scepters)/ niśŧoori (Nestorian)→neśaŧire (Nestorians).* # Feʕʕale *Feʕʕale* is a pl. form used to pluralize a few mas. nouns that are C3 in root. In changing from sing. to pl., the only change that occurs in these nouns is the addition of the short V (e) at the end, as the sing. form is already Feʕʕal (CvCgvC), the first V is a short unwritten one, whilst the second V is a long orthographic one. Hence; **Pattern: CeC²aC→CeC²aCe Template: Feʕʕal→Feʕʕale Root: C3 Alternation:** 1. Elision of the final V (e). Nouns pluralized here are mostly positions or occupations; *keššaf (scout)→keššafe (scouts)/ kheyyal (horseman)→kheyyale (horseman)/ hejjan (camel rider)→hejjane (camel riders)/ reħħal (globetrotter)→reħħale (globetrotters)/ beħħar (sailor)→beħħare (sailors)/ qennaś (sniper)→qennaśe (snipers).* # Faʕe This is a very minor type of irregular pl., since the words pluralized through it are handful. These words are C3 in root; based on CaʔiC. In pl., the medial C (ʔ) is elided along with the following short V, and only the first and the final Cs are kept, and the short orthographic V (e) is suffixed at the end. **Pattern: CaʔiC → CaCe Template: Faʔiʕ→Faʕe Root: C3→C2 Alternation:** 1.Elision of the internal C (ʔ) 2.Elision of the internal V (i) 3.Suffixation of a V(e). Nouns pluralized through this pattern are mostly positions or occupations or the sense of one who does something; *baʔiʕ (salesman)→baʕe (salesmen)/ qaʔid (leader)→qade (leaders)/śaʔiĝ (goldsmith)→śaĝe (goldsmiths)/ saʔis (header)→sase (headers).* Where the medial C is a long V or (y) followed by V, this sequence, including (y), is elided with the final C is retained; *seiyid (mister)→sade (misters).* # Fuʕa *Fuʕa* is a rarely used form to derive irregular pl. Only a few words, fem. trilateral nouns, are pluralized through this form. **Pattern: CeCye→CuCa Template: Feʕye→Fuʕa Root:C3→C2 Alternation:** 1.Mutation of the first internal V (e)→(u) 2.Elision of the prefinal C (y) 3. Lenghthening of the final V (e)→(a), as in *qerye (village)→qura (villages)/ ruʔye (vision)→ruʔa (visions)/ dumye (doll)→duma (dolls)/ kunya (cognomen)→kuna (cognomens)/ ruqye (spell)→ruqa (spells)/ bunye (structure)→buna (structures).* **Pattern: CuCwe→ CuCa Template: Fuʕwe →Fuʕa Root: C3 →C2 Alternation:** 1. Elision of the final C (w) 3. Lenghthening of the final V (e) → (a), as in *ʕurwe (bond)→ʕura (bonds)/ quwwe (force/power)→quwa (forces/powers).* **Pattern: CiCye→CiCa Template: Fiʕye→Fiʕa Root: C3→C2ʕa Alternation:** 1. Elision of the final C (y) 3. Lenghthening of the final V (e)→ (a), as in the nouns *fidye (ransom)→fida (ransoms)/ jizye (tax)→jiza (taxes)/ ʕiduu (enemy)→ʕida (enemies)/ nuwat (nucleus)→newa (nuclei).* # F(i/u)ʕlan A form of irregular pl. to pluralize trilateral mas. nouns. **Pattern: CiCC→CiCCan Template: Fiʕl→Fiʕlan Root: C2/ C3→C4 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (e) → (i) 2.Suffixation of (an). Categories here involve animals or birds; *jirð (rat)→jirðan (rats)/ feʔr (mouse)→fiʔran (mice)/ ĝurab (crow)→ĝirban (crows)/ ĝezal (deer)→ĝizlan (deer).* Miscellaneous; *jidar (wall)→jidran (walls)/ śebee (boy)→śibyan (boys).* **Pattern: CaCiC→CuCCan Template: Faʕil→fuʕlan Root: C3→C4 Alternation:** <span class="underline">1</span>. Shortening of the first internal V (a)→(u) 2.Elision of the second internal V (i) 3. Sufixation of (an), as in *šaŧiʔ (beach)→šuŧʔan (beaches)/ faris (knight)→fursan (knights)* **Pattern: C(u/i/e)CaC→CiCCan Template: Fuʕal→fuʕlan Root: C3→C4 Alternation:** 1. Internal V mutation (u)→(i) 2. Elision of the second internal V (a) 3\. Suffixation of (an) to the end of the noun, as in *šujaʕ (brave)→šijʕan (braves)/ ĝulam (boy)→ĝilman (boys).* **Pattern: CeCeeC→CuCCan Template: Feʕeel → fuʕlan Root: C3→C4 Alternation:**1.Internal V mutation (e) → (u) 2.Elision of the second internal V (ee) 3.Suffixation of (an), as in *ketheeb (sandhill)→kuthban (sandhills)/ qemeeś (shirt)→qumśan (shirts)/ qeďeeb (rod)→quďban (rods)/ kheleej (gulf)→khuljan (gulfs).* **Pattern: CeCeC→ CuCCan Template: Feʕel → fuʕlan Root; C3→C4 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (e) →(u) 2.Elision of the second internal V (e) 3.Suffixation of (an), as in *weled (boy)→wuldan (boys)/ beled (country)→buldan (counties).* Some include nationalities: *siryan (Syriacs)/ ŧilyan (Italians)/ elman (Germans).* This also includes bilateral nouns: *wadee (valley)→widyan (valleys).* # Feʕel *Feʕel* is an irregular pl. form used to derive the pl. of a few mas. nouns, most of which are C3 in root. **Pattern: CaCiC→CeCeC Template: Faʕil→feʕel Root: C3 Alternation:** 1. Shortening of the first internal V (a)→(e) 2.Internal mutation of the second V (i)→(e). Examples are nouns denoting poitions or occupations; *khadim (servant)→khedem (servants, mas. & fem.)/ ħaris (guard)→ħeres (guards)/ khefeer (sentinel)→khefer (sentinels).* **Pattern: CeCeCee→ CeCeC Template: Feʕelee→Feʕel Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Elision of the final V (ee), as in *ʕerebee (Arab)→ʕereb (Arabs)/ ĝejeree (Gypsy)→ĝejer (Gypsies)/ bešeree (human being)→bešer (human beings)/ teteree (Tartar)→teter (Tartars)/ hemejee (barbaric)→hemej (barbaric ones).* Collective nouns (nouns referring to pl. non-animate entities regardless of gender or number); *šejer (tree), semek (fish), śekher (rock), ħejer (stone), beqer (bovines), ĝenem (sheep), bejeʕ (swans),* and *wereq (paper)* can also be included in this category. # Feʕeel This form is used to pluralize a few mas. trilateral or bilateral nouns. **Pattern: CaC→CeCeeC^X Template: Faʕ→Feʕeeʕ Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Shortening of the internal V: (a)→(e) 2.Infixation of a V (ee) 3.Reduplication of the second root C, e.g. *ħaj (pilgrim)→ħejeej (pilgrims)* **Pattern: CeCC→CeCeeC Template: Feʕl→Feʕeel Root: C3 Alternation:** 1. Breaking the final CC by inserting the epenthetical V (ee), as in *ʕebd (slave)→ʕebeed (slaves)* **Pattern: Change: CiCaC →CeCeeC Template: fiʕal→Feʕeel Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation; (i)→(e)/ (a)→(ee), as in; *ħimar (donkey)→ħemeer (donkeys).* # Feʕele *Feʕele* is a pl. form to pluralize trilateral mas. nouns. **Pattern: CaCiC→CeCeCe Template: Faʕil→Feʕele Root: C3 Alternation:** 1. Shortening of the first internal V (a)→(e) 2.Mutation of the second internal V (i)→ (e) 3. Suffixation of a V (e). Nouns pluralized as such are positions; *ŧalib (students)→ŧelebe (students, mas. & fem.)/ sadin (keeper)→sedene (keepers)/ saħir (magician)→seħere (magicians)/ ʕajiz (disabled)→ʕejeze (disabled people)/ kasib (wage-earner)→kesebe (wage-earners).* Permanent or temporary attributes; *qatil (murderer)→qetele (murderers)/ khaʔin (traitor)→khewene (traitors)/ mahir (skilled)→mehere (skilled ones)/ warith (inheritor)→werethe (inhereitors)/ safil (mean)→sefele (mean ones)/ jahil (ignorant)→jehele (ignorant ones).* # Efʕul *Efʕul* is a form of irregular pl. to pluralize mas. and fem. trilateral nouns. **Pattern: CeCC→eCCuC Template: Feʕl→efʕul Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the internal V (e) 3.Breaking the final CC by infixing a short V (u) between the final Cs. Examples on this alternation include *nefs (self)→enfus (selves)/ nehr (river)→enhur (rivers)/ ħerf (letter)→eħruf (letters)/ ferʕ (branch)→efruʕ (branches).* **Pattern: CiCaC→eCCuC Template: fiʕal→efʕul Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the internal V (i) 3.Shortening of the seond internal V (a)→(u). Nouns related involve bodily parts; *lisan (tongue)→elsun (tongues)/ ðiraʕ (arm)→eðruʕ (arms)/ ʕein (eye)→eʕyun (eyes)/ rijl (leg)→erjul (legs),* in addition to body-related actions; *yemeen (oath)→eimun (oaths).* Miscellaneous; *śeŧer ( line)→eśŧur (lines).* # Feeʕal *Feeʕal* is a very rare type of irregular pl. in SA. It is used to pluralize mas as well as fem. bilateral nouns. In bilateral nouns based on CvC template, the medial V is altered to (ee), and (-*an*) is added to the end of the noun. The following table explains this alteration. **Pattern: CaC→CeeCan Template: Faʕ→Feeʕan Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1. Internal V mutation (a)→(ee) 2. Suffixation of (an) <div class="table-wrapper"> <table> <thead> <tr class="header"> <th><blockquote> <p><strong>Sing. root template</strong></p> </blockquote></th> <th><blockquote> <p><strong>Alternation</strong></p> </blockquote></th> <th><blockquote> <p><strong>Ultimate pl. template</strong></p> </blockquote></th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr class="odd"> <td><blockquote> <p><strong>CvC</strong></p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p><strong>C[v~ee]C+an</strong></p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p><strong>CeeCan</strong></p> </blockquote></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><blockquote> <p>saq (leg)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>s-a~ee-q</p> </blockquote></td> <td>seeqan</td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><blockquote> <p>nar (fire)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>n-a~ee-r</p> </blockquote></td> <td>neeran (fires)</td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><blockquote> <p>jeeran ( neighbors)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>j<strong>-a~ee-</strong>r</p> </blockquote></td> <td>jar ( neighbor)</td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><blockquote> <p>qeeʕan (seabed)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>q<strong>-a~ee-</strong>ʕ</p> </blockquote></td> <td>qaʕ (seabed )</td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><blockquote> <p>beeban ( doors)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>b<strong>-a~ee-</strong>b</p> </blockquote></td> <td>bab ( door)</td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><blockquote> <p>teejan ( crowns)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>t<strong>-a~ee-</strong>j</p> </blockquote></td> <td>taj ( crown)</td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><blockquote> <p>ʕeedan (sticks)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>ʕ<strong>-uu~ee-</strong>d</p> </blockquote></td> <td>ʕuud ( stick)</td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><blockquote> <p>deedan ( worms)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>d<strong>-uu~ee-</strong>d</p> </blockquote></td> <td>duud ( worm)</td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><blockquote> <p>ĝeelan (ghoul)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p><strong>ĝ-a~ee-</strong>l</p> </blockquote></td> <td>ĝuul ( ghoul )</td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><blockquote> <p>ħeetan ( whales)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>ħ<strong>-uu~ee-</strong>t</p> </blockquote></td> <td>ħuut ( whale)</td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><blockquote> <p>thour (bull)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>th-ou~ee-r</p> </blockquote></td> <td>theeran (bulls)</td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><blockquote> <p>śuuś (chick)</p> </blockquote></td> <td><blockquote> <p>ś-uu~ee-ś</p> </blockquote></td> <td>Śśeeśan (chicks)</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> If the noun is C3 in root, the same alterations occur, except that the medial C, along with the following V, is elided: *ħ**a**ʔiŧ (wall)→ħ**ee**ŧan (walls)*. Accordingly, both (ʔ) and (i) are elided in this example. # Fiʕele A rarely used form of irregular pl. *Fiʕele* is used to pluralize mas. bilateral, as well as trilateral, nouns. **Pattern: CiCeCe Template: Fiʕele Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation: (u)→(i) 2.Infixation of a short V (e) 3.Reduplication of the second root C 4. Suffixation of a V (e). Words related are mostly concerned with animals and birds; *dub (bear)→dibebe (bears)/ hir (cat)→hirere (cats)/ qird (ape)→qirede (apes)/ feel (elephant)→fiyele (elephants)/ deek (cock)→diyeke (cocks).* # Fiʕee A rarely used form of irregular pl. *Fiʕee* is used to pluralize fem. bilateral as well as trilateral nouns. **Pattern: CiCee Template: Fiʕee Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation: (e)→(i) 2.Final V mutation: (a) →(ee), as in *ʕeśa (stick/cane)→ʕiśee (sticks/canes)/ ħulye (jewel)→ħilee (jewels).* # Efiʕʕe *Efiʕʕe* is a form of irregular pl. This pl. is used with trilateral mas. nouns. In changing from sing. to pl., the root loses the second long V in favor of a medial gemination between the second and the final C. Further, two Vs are affixed to the noun; initially and finally. The few sing. nouns pluralized in this form are based either on CvCeeC or CvCaC. **Pattern: CeCeeC→eCiC²e Template: Feʕeel→efiʕʕe Root: C3→C2 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Mutation of the first internal V (e)→(i) 3.Elision of the second internal V (ee) and thus an internal C geminate is formed 4.Suffixation of a V (e), as in *jeneen (fetus)→ejinne (fetuses)/ ħebeeb (sweet)→eħibbe (sweets)/ sereer(bed)→esirre (beds)/ deleel (evidence)→edille (evidences).* **Pattern: CiCaC→eCiC²e Template: fiʕal Root: C3→C2 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of the V (e) 2.Elision of the second internal V (a) and thus an internal C gemination is formed 3.Suffixation of the V (e), for instance *hilal (crescent)→ehille (crescents)/ imam (Imam)→eʔimme (Imams)/ šuʕaʕ (ray)→ ešiʕʕe (rays).* In *eʔimme* (Imams), the epenthetical (ʔ) is inserted between the intrusive (e) and the following C so as to prevent V sequence, whereas the two Cs are reduced into a C geminate. This is because the noun is bililteral and thus another C is needed to model the pl. pattern. # fuʕuul fuʕuul is a form of pl. that is used to pluralize bilateral mas. nouns. **Pattern: CeC→CuCuuC^X** Where (C^X) is a reduplicated C; **Template: Feʕ→Fuʕuuʕ Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (e)→(u) 2.Infixation of a long V (uu) 3.Reduplication of the second root C. The nouns pluralized here may indicate bodily parts and physical portions; *kef (palm)→kufuuf (palms)/ fek (jaw)→fukuuk (jaws)/ šeq (crack)→šuquuq (cracks)/ khed (cheek)→khuduud (cheeks)/ feś (stone)→fuśsuuś (stones)/ fel (remain)→fuluul (remains).* Miscellaneouss; *ħel (solution)→ħuluul (solutions)/ fen (art)→funuun (arts)/ šer (evil)→šuruur (evils)/ neś (text)→nuśuuś (texts)/ red (reply)→ruduud (replies).* **Pattern: CiC→CuCuuC^X Template: Fiʕ→Fuʕuuʕ Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (i)→(u) 2.Infixation of a long V (uu) 3.Reduplication of the second root C. e.g. *sim (poison)→sumuum (poisons)/ liś (thief)→luśuuś (thieves).* # efʕal *efʕal* is a form of irregular pl. All words pluralized in this form are bilateral, and are based on CvC template. The medial V is short, and hence in pl. it is deleted. A new sound is added at the beginning, the first C is put with the second C, which is doubled. Therefore, the template of pl. becomes vCCaC², where C2 symbolizes the repetition of the second C in the sing. root. **Pattern: CeC→eCCaC^X Template: Feʕ→efʕaʕ Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the internal V (e) 3.infixation of a V (a) 4.Reduplication of the second root C, as in *reb (god)→erbab (gods)/ ned (rival)→endad (rivals)/ ŧen (ton)→eŧnan (tons).* **Pattern: CiC→eCCaC^X Template: Fiʕ→efʕaʕ Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Elision of the internal V (i) 3.Infixation of a V (a) 4.Reduplication of the second root C, as in *sin (tooth)→esnan (tooth)/ sir (secret)→esrar (secrets).* # Fuʕʕel This is a pl. form used in words as; *ʕuzzel (unarmed ones).* **Pattern: CuC^Xel Template: Fuʕʕel Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Mutation of the first internal V→(u) 2.Reduplication of the medial root C. The words here suggest incompleteness, lack, or disadvantage; *eʕzel (unarmed)→ʕuzzel (unarmed ones)/ khedeej (premature baby)→khuddej (premature babies)/ saðej (naive)→suððej (naïve ones).* Additionally, there are several words only in SA that exemplify a sense of overdoing,.i.e., to do something excessively and more than it should be done; *sajid (prostrator)→sujjed (prostrators)* and *rakiʕ (kneeler)→rukkeʕ (kneelers).* # fiʕal A pattern of irregular pl. as in; *rijal* **Pattern: CeCC→CiCaC Template: Feʕl→fiʕal Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (e)→(i) 2.Breaking the final CC by infixing a long V (a). Nouns pluralized here may involve animals, masc. and fem.; *kelb (dog)→kilab (dogs)/ sebʕ (predatory animal)→sibaʕ (predatory animals)/ jewad (horse)→jiyad (horses)/ kheruuf (ram)→khiraf (rams)/ neʕje (ewe)→niʕaj (ewes)/ jerou (cub)→jiraʔ (cubs)/ ferkh (young bird)→firakh (young birds).* Weapons, tools; *sehm (arrow)→siham (aarrows)/ rumħ (spear)→rimaħ (spears)/ ħebl (rope)→ħibal (ropes).* Miscellaneous; *rejul (man)→rijal (men)/ ʕeđm (bone)→ʕiđam (bones).* **Pattern: CeCeC→CiCaC Template: Feʕel→fiʕal Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Mutation of the first internal V (e) →(i) 2.Lenghthening of the second internal V (e)→(a), as in *jebel (mountain)→jibal (mountains)/ jemel (camel)→jimal (camels).* Some are fem.; *qilʕe (castle)→qilaʕ (castles).* There are a few pls. that share a common, regardless of gender, sing. form, or attribution, mainly when they are considered in their pl. form only; *śigar (little/young ones)/ kibar* *(adult ones)/ ʕiyal (family members)/ riyah (winds)/ jiyaʕ (hungry ones)/ dimaʔ (bloods).* The word *imreʔe* has two, irregular and completely different, pls.; *nisaʔ* and *niswe* (*women*). # fuʕul **Pattern: CeCeeCe→CuCuC Template: Feʕeele→fuʕul Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Internal V mutation (e)→(u) 2.Shortening of the second internal V (ee)→(u) 3.Elision of the final V (e) (fem. marker). Examples are *sefeene (ship)→sufun (ships)/ jezeere (island)→juzur (islands)/ śeħeefe (newspaper)→śuħuf (newspapers)/ medeene (city)→mudun (cities).* There are also a few mas. nouns pluarized in this pattern, exercising the same alternations: *resuul (messenger)→rusul (messengers).* **Pattern: CiCaC→CuCuC Template: Feʕeele→fuʕul Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Mutation of the first internal V (i)→(u) 2.Shortening of the second internal V (a)→(u), as in *šihab (shooting star)→šuhub (shooting stars)/ kitab (book)→kutub (books)/ niđam (system/regime)→nuđum (systems/regimes).* # Efaʕil **Pattern: eCaCiC Template:efaʕil Root:C3 Alternation:** 1.infixation of a V (a) 2.Lenghthening of the first internal V (e)→ (a) 3.Muation of the second internal V: (e)→(i). Examples on this pl. are *ejnebee (foreigner)→ejanib (foreigners)/ qereeb (relative)→eqarib (relatives)/ erneb (rabbit)→eranib (rabbits).* # Fuʕala A form of irregular plural in SA that is limited to a few words. **Pattern: CeCCa→CuCaCa Template: feʕla →fuʕala Root: C3 Alternation:** 1.Breaking the medial CC by infixing a long V (a). Nouns related involve attributes; *thekla (mother bereaved of her child)→thekala (mothers bereaved of their children)/ sikkeer (drunken)→sukara (drunken ones)/ ĝeyuur (zealous)→ĝeyara (zealous ones)/ yeteem (orphan)→yetama (orphans).* Ideas or attitudes; *fetwa (formal opinion)→fetawa (formal opinions)/ šekwa (complaint)→šekawa (complaints).* Miscellaneous; *neśranee (Christian)→neśara (Christians).* # Afaʕ *Afaʕ* is a pl. form for pluralizing mas. bilateral sing. nouns. The two short voiced Vs are replaced by long ones; vCvC →aCaC. **Pattern: eCeC→aCaC Template: efeʕ→afaʕ Root: C2 Alternation:** 1.Mutation: Lenghthening of the internal Vs (e/u)→(a). Nouns here may imply expectations or prospects; *ejel (term)→ajal (terms)/ emel (hope)→amal (hopes)/ ufuq (prospect)→afaq (prospects).* Measurement or quantity; *eħed (one)→aħad (units)/ elf (thousand)→alaf (thousands).* Miscellaneous; *ether (trace)→athar* *(traces)/ elem (pain)→alam (pains)/ ithm (sin)→atham (sins).* The same applies if the noun has a single short V. In addition to the replacement of this single V with a long one, another long V will be inserted between the two Cs; vCC→aCaC. For words which are trilateral, or which are CvCC in root, the medial C is elided, and the root will be vCvC; *biʔr (well)→abar (wells).* # Fuʕat Feʕat is a pl. form used to pluralize bilateralor trilateral mas nouns. The (-***at***) suffix added in pl. here is not that of sound fem. pl., as in *qarre* (continent)→*qarr**at ***(continents), because in these words the form of the word is not changed, while in this pl. form, the form of the word undergoes changing. All the nouns here denote a profession or position. **Pattern: CaCee→CuCat Template: Faʕee→Fuʕat Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Shortening of internal V (a)→(u) 2.Elision of final V (ee) 3.Suffixation of (-at). This pl. is found in nouns denote positions; *qaďee (judge)→quďat (judges)/ walee (governor)→wulat (governors)/ ramee (shooter)→rumat (shooters)/ saʕee (courier)→suʕat (couriers) /ĝazee (raider)→ĝuzat (raiders)/ banee (builder)→bunat (builders).* In unmarked mas nouns, the final fem. suffix (-e) is elided in pl., along with the third root C (y); *ŧaĝiye (tyrant)→ŧuĝat (tyrants)/ daʕiye (caller)→duʕat (callers)/ dahiye (artful)→duhat (artful ones)/ rawiye (relator/narrator)→ruwat (relators/narrators).* # Feʕla *Feʕla* is a pl. form used to pluralize bilateralor trilateral mas. nouns. Nouns pluralized through this pattern often have some features in common. Firstly, they are all based on CeCeeC in sing., except for *eseer* (captive) and *eħmeq* (fool), and they become CeCCa in pl. Secondly, they usually denote physical or bodily qualities or disadvantages, especially those related to bodily injury or accidents; **Pattern: CeCeeC→CeCCa Template: Feʕeel→Feʕla Root: R3 Alternation:** 1.Elision of the second V (ee) 2.Suffixation of (-a), as in the nouns *qeteel (murdered)→qetla (murdered ones)/ jereeħ (wounded)→jerħa (wounded ones)/ mereď (sick)→merďa (sick ones)/ śereeʕ (fallen)→śerʕa (fallen ones)/ ĝereeq (drowned)→ĝerqa (drowned ones)/ eseer (captive)→esra (captives).* The only exception to the above pattern is the word *meiyit* (dead). Though C3 in root, CvCvC, seemingly like the words discussed above, but it is phonotactically different being CeiCit. Yet, this word becomes bilateral in pl.; *mouta* (dead people), as the medial C (y) is elided and a V (ou) is inserted instead. # Feʕal *Feʕal* is a pl. form used to pluralize bilateral or trilateral mas and fem. nouns. The nouns related are mostly bilateral. Insertion of an internal V plus a C (w), and the deletion of the final V, if any; *šað (odd)→šewað (odds).* In nouns where the second C is a geminate, it is degeminated (it becomes a single C); **Pattern: CaC²e→CewaC Template: Faʕʕe→Fewaʕ Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Infixation of a syllable (ew) 2.Degemination of the final geminate 3.Elision of the final V (e). Examples are *ħasse (sense)→ħewas (senses)/ madde (material)→mewad (materials)/ dabbe (pack animal)→dewab (pack animals)/ ʕammee (layman)→ʕewam (laymen).* If the noun is C3, which is quite rare, the final C as well as the following Vs are elided, in order to correspond to the pl. pattern; **CaC²iCe → CewaC** as in *khaśśiye (characteristic)→khewaś (characteristics).* # Efʕaʔ This is a pl. form used in pluralizing a few sing. nouns, most of which are bilateral. The very name of this pl. form indicates its morphological form (eCCaʔ) for unilateral nouns (consisting of a single C plus one or two Vs) and eCCaʔ for bilateral nouns. The change includes the addition of the syllable (aʔ) to the end of the sing. root, and the V (e) at the beginning of that noun. If the internal V is (ei), it is altered to C (y) in pl.; *šeiʔ (thing)→ ešyaʔ (things).* **Pattern: Cei→eCyaʔ Template: Fei→efyaʔ Root: C1→C3 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Mutation of the V to C (ei)→(ya) 3.Suffixation of (aʔ). Examples are *zei (fashion)→ezyaʔ(fashions)/ ħei (living)→eħyaʔ (the living).* If the internal V is (ou), it is deleted and replaced with the C (w). Here, C1 roots (single C words) become bilateral, as in; vC→aCaʔ *e**b** (father)→a**b**a**ʔ** (fathers),* or trilateral by changing the V (ou) to a C (w),as in; ***j**<span class="underline">ou</span> (atmosphere/ mood)→e**j**<span class="underline">w</span>a**ʔ**(atmospheres/mood)* where it is Cv → vCCvC. C2 roots become C3, too; ***đ**ou**ʔ** (light)→e**đw**a**ʔ** (lights),* hence CvC→ vCCvC. CvC→ vCCvC ***n**ou**ʔ** (rain)→e**nw**a**ʔ** (rains).* **Pattern: CeCee→eCCaʔ Template: Feʕee→efʕaʔ Alternation:** 1. Prefixation of a V (e) 2. Mutation of the final V (ee) →(ʔ) 3.Suffixation of (ʔ), as in *meʕee (intestine)→emʕaʔ (intestines)/ reʔee (opinion)→araʔ (opinions).* **Pattern:CeCuu→eCCaʔ Template: Feʕee→efʕaʔ Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1.Prefixation of a V (e) 2.Mutation of the final V (ee)→(ʔ) 3.Suffixation of a C (ʔ), as in *neħuu (direction)→enħaʔ (directions)/ šiluu (dismembered part)→ešlaʔ (dismembered parts).* **Pattern: CeCa→eCCaʔ Template: Feʕa→efʕaʔ Root: C2→C3 Alternation:** 1. Prefixation of a V (e) 2. Elision of the internal V (e) 3.Suffixation of a C (ʔ), as in *hewa (affection/inclination)→ehwaʔ (affections/inclinations)/ śeda (echo)→eśdaʔ (echoes)/ reja (area)→erjaʔ (areas)/ ibn (son)→ebnaʔ (sons).* # Mufteʕile The formation of pl. involves the addition of the V (e) to the end of the sing. noun; **Pattern: MuCteCiC→MuCteCiC Template: Mufteʕil→Mufteʕile Root:C5 Alternation:** 1.Suffixation of a V (e), as in *muʕtezil (Mu'tazilid)→muʕtezile (Mu’tazilids)/ murteziq (mercenary)→murteziqe (mercenaries).* # Fiʕye This is a pattern of irregular plural with the alteration of the final V to a C (y) plus a short V (e); CeCee→CiCye, as in *śebee (boy)→śibye (boys).* CeCa→CiCye, as in *feta (youngman)→fitye (youngmen).* # Feʕale A very rare form for irregular pl. It involves V mutation: CeCaCee→CeCaCe, as in; *śeħabee (companion)→śeħabe (companions)* and *ħejer (stone)→ħijare (stones).* # Faʕʕe A very rare form of irregular pl. that involves a reduplication of the final C and the addition of a short V (e); *mar (passer-by)→marre (passers-by).* # Fuʕwe A rare form of irregular pl. There are two words in SA that demonstrate such pl.; *ekh (brother)→ukhwe (brothers)* and *imreʔe (woman)→niswe (women).* # Fuʕwan A rarely used form of irregular pl. in SA that is characterized by the suffix –***an***. The word *ekh (brother)→ukhwan (brothers)* is the only example of such form. # Feʕaleeye A rare irregular pl. form in which the final long V is changed into two short Vs; CvCvCv→CeCaCiye, as in the substandard *ħeramee (robber)→ħerameeye (robbers)/* and the word *la adree (agnostic)→la adreeye (agnostics).* # Fuʕl A rare form of irregular pl. in SA, that is based on CvCC. The related words suggest physical disadvantageness, as in; *eśem (deaf)→śum (deaf ones)* and *ebkem (dumb)→bukm (dumb ones),* or colours in general; *khuđr (green ones)/ ħumr (red ones)/ śufr (yellow ones)* and *zurq (blue ones).* # 6\. Results and Conclusions 1. The paper finds that irregular pl. forms in SA are such multiple that each form has its own structure. While some pls. are predictable, others are not. Unlike the previous studies, this research finds that there are 43 forms of irregular pl. in SA, which is higher than the pl. forms given in the previous studies. According to Murtonen (1964), and Wright (1971:191-233), there are 31 types of irregular pl. However, in later investigations, such as that of Levy (1971) and McCarthy and Prince (1990), irregular pl. forms are categorized into fewer classes. 2. Predicting the sort of irregular pl. for a single word is quite difficult. The research finds that some irregular pls. are predictable, while some others are not. Nevertheless, there are a few aspects and factors that can help predict which pl. form applies to a single word such the template (the so-called <span dir="rtl">ﺗﻔﻌﯿﻠﺔ</span>, as in <span dir="rtl">اﻟﺦ...ُﻌﻞ، ﻓﺎﻋﻞ،ﻓ</span>), the pattern (C- V sequence), and the root (C2, C3, C4, .etc). Also, the spacio-temporal scope of the word may be helpful sometimes in determining the proper irregular pl. form. Hence, for example, quadriliteral words denoting place, setting, or position, especially those prefixed with *m-*, are pluralized through infixation, as in *mesjid→mesajid*, *mekteb→mekatib*, *mejlis→mejalis*,..etc. 3. It has been found that Vs and V quality are significant factors in the formation of irregular pl. as seen in certain pl. forms with internal change only. Thus, a V change from short to long or vice versa may determine the type of such pls. 4. The paper has found that the root of the word (Cs) is sometimes used in pl. Such root represents the origin of all the related derivations and words. e.g. *wezeer* “minister”, the root *w-z-r*, rather than the sing. form, is used in pl., hence *wizraʔ* “ministers”. Similarly, in words such as *qeteel, jeree, eseer*, the roots, rather than the sing. words, are pluralized; *qetla*=murdered ones (*qetl*=murdering), *jerħa* wounded ones (*jerħ*=wounding), and *esra*=captives (*esr*=captivity). 5. The paper has found that there is a relationship between the type of the word and the animate vs. non-animate, human vs. non-human status, which also determines the sort of the irregular pl. For example, trilateral masc words of the template *feʕeel* denoting positions, ranks, or posts related to animate or human features are pluralized with -*aʔ* as in *sefeer→suferaʔ “ambassadors”, khebeer→khuberaʔ “experts”, wekeel→wikelaʔ “agents”,* wherase trilateral masc. words of the same template denoting non-animate, non-human entities, are pluralized with *–an* as in *qemees→qumsan “shirts”*, *qeđeeb→quđban “shafts”*, and *kheleej*→*khuljan* “gulfs”. Also, the gender of the word governs sometimes the irregular pl. of that word. For example, trilateral masc. nouns that are pluralized with the fem suffix *–e*, have the medial C elided in order not to be assimilated or confused with the sing. fem form of these words; *qaʔid* “leader”→*qade* “leaders” rather than *qaʔide* “female leader” and *baʔiʕ* “salesman”→*baʕe* “salesmen” rather than *baʔiʕe* “saleswoman.” Likewise, *saq (leg)*, and the similarly formed nouns, is pluralized as *seeqan* (legs) by the *a→ee* shift plus the suffix *–an*, rather than *saqan*. This might be to avoid assimilating such plural with the dual form of the word which is *saqan (two legs).* 6. Short Vs are found to be the weak area of alteration and change in irregular pls., considering the significant changes that involve this type of Vs. Moreover, in the majority, if not all, irregular pl., Vs could be elided, inserted, or replaced, while Cs are altered or re-inserted, with an exception to a few or handful of words whereby the final C is elided in pl. e.g. *seferjel* and *ʕenkebuut*. 7. The *-an/en* suffix used in certain irregular pls. (such as *buldan, ukhwan, fityan, seeqan*, and a few others) may indicate that the original regular masc. pl. in SA, which is denoted by *–een/-uun*, is related to this suffix, or it could have been derived from it in a way or another. Additionally, in pls. where the change is a suffix, most suffixes are vC, as in *–aʔ, -an,* and *-at*. # 7\. Further Areas of Research 1. A contrastive study can be conducted on morphophonemic changes in both English language and Arabic language. 2. There are several morphophonemic changes in Standard Arabic that need a further analysis and investigation including diminutives, tense marking, derivation, and the like. # 8\. 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